Proto-Circassian language

Not to be confused with Proto-Kabardian language.
Proto-Circassian
Proto-Adyghe–Kabardian
Reconstruction ofCircassian languages
Reconstructed
ancestor

Proto-Circassian (or Proto-Adyghe–Kabardian) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Adyghean and Kabardian languages.

Phonology

Proto‑Circassian
Proto-East Circassian
Proto‑West Circassian
Kuban river
Black Sea coast
A Circassian dialects family tree.

Note on Orthography: This article employs Cyrillic characters alongside IPA to assist readers familiar with the Circassian alphabet. However, standard Adyghe orthography contains inconsistencies; notably, the digraph кӏ represents the sound [t͡ʃʼ] despite visually suggesting a velar ejective [kʼ]. To ensure phonetic precision, this article utilizes the following distinctions: чӏ for [t͡ʃʼ], чӏъ for [ʈʂʼ], and кӏь for [kʲʼ].

Orthographic Convention
This article uses specific Cyrillic notation to resolve ambiguities in the standard alphabet:
чӏ [t͡ʃʼ] (Standard кӏ)
чӏъ [ʈʂʼ] (Retroflex)
кӏь [kʲʼ] (Palatalized velar)

Consonants

The consonant system is reconstructed with a four-way phonation contrast in stops and affricates, and a two-way contrast in fricatives.

Proto-
Circassian 		Western Circassian (Adyghe) Eastern Circassian (Kabardian)
Shapsug Bzhedug Chemguy Abzakh Besleney Kabardian
b б b б b б
p п p п b б
pʰ пʰ pʰ пʰ p п p п
pʼ пӏ pʼ пӏ pʼ пӏ
d д d д d д
t т t т d д
tʰ тʰ tʰ тʰ t т t т
tʼ тӏ tʼ тӏ tʼ тӏ
ɡʲ гь ɡʲ гь d͡ʒ дж ɡʲ гь d͡ʒ дж
(ɡʲ гь in some dialects)
kʲ кь kʲ кь t͡ʃ ч ɡʲ гь d͡ʒ дж
(ɡʲ гь in some dialects)
kʲʰ кʰь kʲʰ кʰь t͡ʃʰ чʰ t͡ʃ ч kʲ кь t͡ʃ ч
(kʲ кь in some dialects)
kʲʼ кӏь kʲʼ кӏь t͡ʃʼ чӏ kʲʼ кӏь t͡ʃʼ чӏ
(kʲʼ кӏь in some dialects)
ɡʷ гу ɡʷ гу ɡʷ гу
kʷ ку kʷ ку ɡʷ гу
kʷʰ кʰу kʷʰ кʰу kʷ ку kʷ ку
kʷʼ кӏу kʷʼ кӏу kʷʼ кӏу
q къ q къ q къ
qʰ кʰъ qʰ кʰъ q къ q͡χ кхъ
qʷ къу qʷ къу qʷ къу
qʷʰ кʰъу qʷʰ кʰъу qʷ къу q͡χʷ кхъу
Proto-
Circassian 		Western Circassian Eastern Circassian
Shapsug Bzhedug Chemguy Abzakh Besleney Kabardian
d͡z дз d͡z дз d͡z дз
t͡s ц t͡s ц d͡z дз
t͡sʰ цʰ t͡sʰ цʰ t͡s ц t͡s ц
t͡sʼ цӏ t͡sʼ / sʼ цӏ / сӏ t͡sʼ цӏ t͡sʼ цӏ
d͡ʐʷ джъу d͡ʐʷ джъу v в
t͡ʂʷ чъу t͡ʂʷ чъу v в
t͡ɕʷʰ чъʰу t͡ʂʷʰ чъʰу t͡ʂʷ чъу f ф
d͡ʒ дж d͡ʒ дж ʒ ж d͡ʒ дж ʒ ж
t͡ʃ ч t͡ʃ ч ʃ ш d͡ʒ дж ʒ ж
t͡ʂ чъ t͡ʃ ч t͡ʂ чъ ʂ шъ d͡ʐ джъ ʒ ж
t͡ʃʰ чʰ   ʃʰ шʰ ʃ ш t͡ʃ ч ʃ ш
t͡ʂʰ чʰъ ʃʰ шʰ ʃ ш t͡ʂ чъ ʃ ш
t͡ʃʼ чӏ t͡ʃʼ чӏ ɕʼ / ʔʲ щӏ / ӏ t͡ʃʼ чӏ ɕʼ щӏ
t͡ʂʼ чӏъ t͡ʃʼ чӏ t͡ʂʼ чӏъ ɕʼ / ʔʲ щӏ / ӏ t͡ʂʼ чӏъ ɕʼ щӏ
Proto-
Circassian 		Western Circassian Eastern Circassian
Shapsug Bzhedug Chemguy Abzakh Besleney Kabardian
z з z з z з
s с s с s с
ʑ жь ʒ ж ʑ жь ʑ жь
ɕ щ ʃ ш ɕ щ ɕ щ
ɕʼ шӏ ʃʼ шӏ ɕʼ щӏ
ʐʷ жъу ʑʷ жьу ʐʷ жъу v в
ʂʷ шъу ɕʷ щу ʂʷ шъу f ф
ʂʷʼ шӏу ʂʷʼ шӏу fʼ фӏ
ʒ ж ʒ ж ʒ ж ʑ жь
ʐ жъ ʐ жъ ʐ жъ ʑ жь
ʃ ш ʃ ш ʃ ш ɕ щ
ʂ шъ ʂ шъ ʂ шъ ɕ щ
ʃʰ шʰ ʃʰ шʰ ʃ ш ʃ ш ɕ щ
ʂʰ шʰъ ʃʰ шʰ ʃ ш ʂ шъ ɕ щ
Proto-
Circassian 		Western Circassian Eastern Circassian
Shapsug Bzhedug Chemguy Abzakh Besleney Kabardian
ɮ л ɮ л ɮ л
ɬ лъ ɬ лъ ɬ лъ
ɬʼ лӏ ɬʼ лӏ ɬʼ лӏ
ɣ г ɣ г ɣ г
x х x х x х
xʷ ху f ф xʷ ху
ʁ гъ ʁ гъ ʁ гъ
ʁʷ гъу ʁʷ гъу ʁʷ гъу
χ хъ χ хъ χ хъ
χʷ хъу χʷ хъу χʷ хъу
ħ хь ħ хь ħ хь
m м m м m м
n н n н n н
r р r р r р
w у w у w у
j й j й j й
ʔ ӏ ʔ ӏ ʔ ӏ
ʔʷ ӏу ʔʷ ӏу ʔʷ ӏу

Aspirated consonants to plain

In Proto-Circassian there was a series of aspirated consonants that survived in the Shapsug and Bzhedug dialects, while they became plain consonants in the other dialects (Abzakh, Chemguy, Kabardian).

The following table demonstrates the shift from Proto-Circassian (preserved in Shapsug/Bzhedug) to the plain consonants in other dialects.

Word Proto
Circassian 		Shapsug Bzhedug Abzakh
Chemguy 		Kabardian
Shift: pʰ → p
noise pʰa ⟨пʰэ⟩ pʰa ⟨пʰэ⟩ pʰa ⟨пʰэ⟩ pa ⟨пэ⟩ pa ⟨пэ⟩
sharp pʰaːpsʼa ⟨пʰапсӏэ⟩ pʰaːpsʼa ⟨пʰапсӏэ⟩ paːpt͡sʼa ⟨пʰапцӏэ⟩ paːpt͡sʼa ⟨папцӏэ⟩ paːpt͡sʼa ⟨папцӏэ⟩
arrogant pʰaːɣa ⟨пʰагэ⟩ pʰaːɣaⓘ ⟨пʰагэ⟩ pʰaːɣa ⟨пʰагэ⟩ paːɣa ⟨пагэ⟩ paːɣa ⟨пагэ⟩
nose pʰa ⟨пʰэ⟩ pʰaⓘ ⟨пʰэ⟩ pʰa ⟨пʰэ⟩ pa ⟨пэ⟩ pa ⟨пэ⟩
Shift: tʰ → t
respect pχaːtʰa ⟨пхъатʰэ⟩ pχaːtʰaⓘ ⟨пхъатʰэ⟩ pχaːtʰa ⟨пхъатʰэ⟩ pχaːta ⟨пхъатэ⟩ -
to give jatʰən ⟨етʰын⟩ jatʰən ⟨етʰын⟩ jatʰən ⟨етʰын⟩ jatən ⟨етын⟩ jatən ⟨етын⟩
to take ʃtʰan ⟨штʰэн⟩ ʃtʰan ⟨штʰэн⟩ ʃtʰan ⟨штʰэн⟩ ʃtan ⟨штэн⟩ ɕtan ⟨щтэн⟩
on tʰajt ⟨тʰет⟩ tʰajt ⟨тʰет⟩ tʰajt ⟨тʰет⟩ tajt ⟨тет⟩ tat ⟨тет⟩
smooth t͡sʼaːʂʷtʰa ⟨цӏашъутʰэ⟩ t͡sʼaːʂʷtʰa ⟨цӏашъутʰэ⟩ t͡sʼaːʂʷtʰa ⟨цӏашъутʰэ⟩ t͡sʼaːʃʷta ⟨цӏашъутэ⟩ t͡sʼaːfta ⟨цӏафтэ⟩
to be afraid ɕtʰan ⟨щтʰэн⟩ ɕtʰan ⟨щтʰэн⟩ ɕtʰan ⟨щтʰэн⟩ ɕtan ⟨щтэн⟩ ɕtan ⟨щтэн⟩
pillow ʂħaːntʰa ⟨шъхьантʰэ⟩ ʂħaːntʰaⓘ ⟨шъхьантʰэ⟩ ʂħaːtʰa ⟨шъхьатʰэ⟩ ʂħaːnta ⟨шъхьантэ⟩ ɕħaːnta ⟨щхьантэ⟩
Shift: t͡sʰ → t͡s
wool t͡sʰə ⟨цʰы⟩ t͡sʰəⓘ ⟨цʰы⟩ t͡sʰə ⟨цʰы⟩ t͡sə ⟨цы⟩ t͡sə ⟨цы⟩
eyelash nabzət͡sʰ ⟨нэбзыцʰ⟩ nabzət͡sʰ ⟨нэбзыцʰ⟩ nabzət͡sʰ ⟨нэбзыцʰ⟩ nabzət͡s ⟨нэбзыц⟩ -
Shift: ʃʰ → ʃ / ɕ
brother t͡ʃʰə ⟨чʰы⟩ ʃʰə ⟨шʰы⟩ ʃʰə ⟨шʰы⟩ ʃə ⟨шы⟩ qʷaʃ ⟨къуэш⟩
lame ɬaːʃʰa ⟨лъашʰэ⟩ ɬaːʃʰaⓘ ⟨лъашʰэ⟩ ɬaːʃʰa ⟨лъашʰэ⟩ ɬaːɕa ⟨лъащэ⟩ ɬaːʃa ⟨лъашэ⟩
milk ʃʰa ⟨шʰэ⟩ ʃʰaⓘ ⟨шʰэ⟩ ʃʰa ⟨шʰэ⟩ ɕa ⟨щэ⟩ ʃa ⟨шэ⟩
salt ʃʰəʁʷ ⟨шʰыгъу⟩ ʃʰəʁʷⓘ ⟨шʰыгъу⟩ ʃʰəʁʷ ⟨шʰыгъу⟩ ɕəʁʷ ⟨щыгъу⟩ ʃəʁʷ ⟨шыгъу⟩
cloud pʃʰa ⟨пшʰэ⟩ pʃʰa ⟨пшʰэ⟩ pʃʰa ⟨пшʰэ⟩ pɕa ⟨пщэ⟩ pʃa ⟨пшэ⟩
pus ʃʰənə ⟨шʰыны⟩ ʃʰənəⓘ ⟨шʰыны⟩ ʃʰənə ⟨шʰыны⟩ ɕənə ⟨щыны⟩ ʃən ⟨шын⟩
accordion pɕəna ⟨пщынэ⟩ pʃʰənaⓘ ⟨пшʰынэ⟩ pɕəna ⟨пщынэ⟩ pɕəna ⟨пщынэ⟩ pɕəna ⟨пщынэ⟩
fat pʃʰarə ⟨пшʰэры⟩ pʃʰarəⓘ ⟨пшʰэры⟩ pʃʰarə ⟨пшʰэры⟩ pɕarə ⟨пщэры⟩ pʃar ⟨пшэр⟩
wax ɕafə ⟨щэфы⟩ ʃʰafəⓘ ⟨иэфы⟩ ɕafə ⟨щэфы⟩ ɕafə ⟨щэфы⟩ ɕaxʷə ⟨щэху⟩
horse ʃʰə ⟨шʰы⟩ ʃʰə ⟨шʰы⟩ ʃʰə ⟨шʰы⟩ ʃə ⟨шы⟩ ʃə ⟨шы⟩
sand pʃʰaːχʷa ⟨пшʰахъо⟩ pʃʰaːχʷaⓘ ⟨пшʰахъо⟩ pʃʰaːχʷa ⟨пшʰахъо⟩ pʃaːχʷa ⟨пшахъо⟩ pʃaːχʷa ⟨пшахъуэ⟩
story pʃʰəsa ⟨пшʰысэ⟩ pʃʰəsaⓘ ⟨пшʰысэ⟩ pʃʰəsa ⟨пшʰысэ⟩ pʃəsa ⟨пшысэ⟩ pʃəsa ⟨пшысэ⟩
Shift: kʲʰ → t͡ʃ / t͡ʃʰ
spleen kʲʰa ⟨кьʰэ⟩ kʲʰa ⟨кьʰэ⟩ t͡ʃʰa ⟨чʰэ⟩ t͡ʃa ⟨чэ⟩ t͡ʃa ⟨чэ⟩
brushwood kʲʰə ⟨кьʰы⟩ kʲʰə ⟨кьʰы⟩ t͡ʃʰə ⟨чʰы⟩ t͡ʃə ⟨чы⟩ t͡ʃə ⟨чы⟩
to cough pskʲʰan ⟨пскьʰэн⟩ pskʲʰan ⟨пскьʰэн⟩ pst͡ʃʰan ⟨псчʰэн⟩ pst͡ʃan ⟨псчэн⟩ pst͡ʃan ⟨псчэн⟩
Shift: kʷʰ → kʷ
thigh kʷʰa ⟨кʰо⟩ kʷʰaⓘ ⟨кʰо⟩ kʷʰa ⟨кʰо⟩ kʷa ⟨ко⟩ kʷa ⟨куэ⟩
middle kʷʰə ⟨кʰу⟩ kʷʰəⓘ ⟨кʰу⟩ kʷʰə ⟨кʰу⟩ kʷə ⟨ку⟩ kʷə ⟨ку⟩
Shift: qʰ → q / q͡χ
grave qʰa ⟨кʰъэ⟩ qʰaⓘ ⟨кʰъэ⟩ qʰa ⟨кʰъэ⟩ qa ⟨къэ⟩ q͡χa ⟨кхъэ⟩
Shift: qʷʰ → qʷ / q͡χʷ
pig qʰʷa ⟨кʰъо⟩ qʰʷaⓘ ⟨кʰъо⟩ qʰʷa ⟨кʰъо⟩ qʷa ⟨къо⟩ q͡χʷa ⟨кхъуэ⟩
cheese qʰʷaːja ⟨кʰъуае⟩ qʰʷaːja ⟨кʰъуае⟩ qʰʷaːja ⟨кʰъуае⟩ qʷaːja ⟨къуае⟩ q͡χʷaj ⟨кхъуей⟩
ship qʰʷaħ ⟨кʰъохь⟩ qʰʷaħ ⟨кʰъохь⟩ qʰʷaħ ⟨кʰъохь⟩ qʷəħa ⟨къухьэ⟩ q͡χʷəħ ⟨кхъухь⟩
to fart qaqʰʷəʃʷən ⟨къэкʰъун⟩ qaqʰʷəʃʷən ⟨къэкʰъун⟩ qaqʰʷəʃʷən ⟨къэкʰъун⟩ qaqʷəʃʷən ⟨къэкъушъун⟩ qat͡səfən ⟨къэцыфын⟩
peer qʰʷəʐə ⟨кʰъужъы⟩ qʰʷəʐə ⟨кʰъужъы⟩ qʰʷəʐə ⟨кʰъужъы⟩ qʷəʐə ⟨къужъы⟩ q͡χʷəʑə ⟨кхъужьы⟩
Shift: t͡ɕʷʰ → t͡ʃʷ
jungle t͡ɕʷʰənə ⟨чъʰуны⟩ t͡ɕʷʰənə ⟨чъʰуны⟩ t͡ɕʷʰənə ⟨чъʰуны⟩ t͡ʃʷənə ⟨цуны⟩ fən ⟨фын⟩

Plain voiceless consonants to voiced

In the Proto-Circassian there was a series of tense consonants that became voiced in the eastern dialects.

Word Proto
Circassian 		Bzhedug
Chemguy 		Besleney Kabardian
we ta ⟨тэ⟩ ta ⟨тэ⟩ da ⟨дэ⟩ da ⟨дэ⟩
leader tħamaːta ⟨тхьэматэ⟩ tħamaːta ⟨тхьэматэ⟩ tħamaːda ⟨тхьэмадэ⟩ tħamaːda ⟨тхьэмадэ⟩
fish pt͡saʐəja ⟨пцэжъые⟩ pt͡saʐəja ⟨пцэжъые⟩ bd͡zaʐej ⟨бдзэжъей⟩ bd͡zaʑej ⟨бдзэжьей⟩
glass aːpkʲ ⟨апкь⟩ aːpt͡ʃ ⟨апч⟩ ʔaːbɡʲ ⟨абгь⟩ ʔaːbd͡ʒ ⟨абдж⟩
chicken kʲat ⟨кьэт⟩ t͡ʃatə ⟨чэты⟩ ɡʲad ⟨гьэд⟩ d͡ʒad ⟨джэд⟩
night t͡ʃaɕ ⟨чэщ⟩ t͡ʃaɕə ⟨чэщы⟩ d͡ʒaɕ ⟨джэщ⟩ ʒaɕ ⟨жэщ⟩
village t͡ʃəɮa ⟨чылэ⟩ t͡ʃəɮa ⟨чылэ⟩ d͡ʒəɮa ⟨джылэ⟩ ʒəɮa ⟨жылэ⟩
cow t͡ʃam ⟨чэм⟩ t͡ʃamə ⟨чэмы⟩ d͡ʒam ⟨джэм⟩ ʒam ⟨жэм⟩
tree t͡ʂəɣ ⟨чъыг⟩ t͡ʂəɣə ⟨чъыгы⟩ d͡ʐəɣ ⟨джъыг⟩ ʒəɣ ⟨жыг⟩
mouse t͡səʁʷa ⟨цыгъо⟩ t͡səʁʷa ⟨цыгъо⟩ d͡zəʁʷa ⟨дзыгъуэ⟩ d͡zəʁʷa ⟨дзыгъуэ⟩
short kʲʼaːkʷa ⟨кӏьако⟩ t͡ʃʼaːkʷa ⟨кӏако⟩ kʲʼaːɡʷa ⟨кӏьагуэ⟩ t͡ʃʼaːɡʷa ⟨кӏагуэ⟩
wheat kʷat͡s ⟨коц⟩ kʷat͡sə ⟨коцы⟩ ɡʷad͡z ⟨гуэдз⟩ ɡʷad͡z ⟨гуэдз⟩

The Two Major Shifts

Historically, Proto-Circassian possessed a distinct series of stops and affricates. This inventory included palatalized velars and a contrast between retroflex and postalveolar affricates:

Postalveolar affricates:

Retroflex affricates:

Palatalized velars:

The evolution of these consonants into modern dialects occurred in two major phases: Spirantization (Phase 1) and Velar Palatalization (Phase 2).

Phase 1: Spirantization (Affricate to Fricative)

In Phase 1, the original Proto-Circassian affricate postalveolar consonants and retroflex consonants underwent spirantization, becoming fricatives.

  • Affected Dialects: Abzakh, Modern Standard Kabardian, and archaic Kabardian dialects.
  • Unaffected Dialects: Shapsug, Bzhedug, Chemguy, and Besleney.

The shifts were:

In Abzakh, a specific variation occurred where t͡ʃʼ ⟨чӏ⟩ often became a glottal stop ʔʲ ⟨ӏь⟩.

Examples of Phase 1 shifts:

  • The Proto-Circassian word чӏэкӏьын "to come out from under" became щӏэкӏьын in Proto-Kabardian and ӏекӏьын in Proto-Abzakh.
  • The Proto-Circassian word чӏэгъуэжьын "to regret" became щӏэгъуэжын in Kabardian & ӏегъуэжьын Abzakh.
  • The Proto-Circassian word пачӏэ "mustache" became пащӏэ in both Kabardian & Abzakh.
  • The Proto-Circassian word чӏалэ "boy; young man" became щӏалэ in Kabardian and ӏелэ in Abzakh.
  • The Proto-Circassian word чӏымахуэ "winter" became щӏымахуэ in Kabardian and щӏымафэ in Abzakh.
  • The Proto-Circassian word чӏэ "new" became щӏэ in both Kabardian & Abzakh.

However, in dialects affected only by Phase 1 (like some archaic Kabardian dialects) or both phases (Standard Kabardian/Abzakh), words containing the original palatalized velars were initially unaffected. Words like кӏьапсэ "rope", кӏьэрахъуэ "gun" & кӏьэ "tail" were still pronounced with kʲʼ.

The following table demonstrates the Phase 1 shift (Affricate → Fricative), showing how Abzakh and Standard Kabardian innovated while Bzhedug, Chemguy, and Besleney remained conservative regarding these specific consonants.

Word Proto
Circassian 		Bzhedug
Chemguy
(No Phase 1) 		Besleney
(No Phase 1) 		Abzakh
(Phase 1 affected) 		Standard Kabardian
(Phase 1 affected)
fox baːd͡ʒa ⟨баджэ⟩ baːd͡ʒa ⟨баджэ⟩ baːd͡ʒa ⟨баджэ⟩ baːʒa ⟨бажэ⟩ baːʒa ⟨бажэ⟩
village qʷaːd͡ʒa ⟨къуаджэ⟩ qʷaːd͡ʒa ⟨къуаджэ⟩ qʷaːd͡ʒa ⟨къуаджэ⟩ qʷaːʒa ⟨къуажэ⟩ qʷaːʒa ⟨къуажэ⟩
village t͡ʃəɮa ⟨чылэ⟩ t͡ʃəɮa ⟨чылэ⟩ d͡ʒəɮa ⟨джылэ⟩ ʃəɮa ⟨шылэ⟩ ʒəɮa ⟨жылэ⟩
night t͡ʃaɕ ⟨чэщ⟩ t͡ʃaɕə ⟨чэщы⟩ d͡ʒaɕ ⟨джэщ⟩ ʃaɕə ⟨шэщы⟩ ʒaɕ ⟨жэщ⟩
cow t͡ʃam ⟨чэм⟩ t͡ʃamə ⟨чэмы⟩ d͡ʒam ⟨джэм⟩ ʃamə ⟨шэмы⟩ ʒam ⟨жэм⟩
new t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ ʃʼa ⟨шӏэ⟩ ɕʼa ⟨щӏэ⟩
winter t͡ʃʼəmaːxʷa ⟨чӏымахо⟩ t͡ʃʼəmaːfa ⟨чӏымафэ⟩ t͡ʃʼəmaːxʷa ⟨чӏымахуэ⟩ ʃʼəmaːfa ⟨шӏымафэ⟩ ɕʼəmaːxʷa ⟨щӏымахуэ⟩
young-man t͡ʃʼaːɮa ⟨чӏалэ⟩ t͡ʃʼaːɮa ⟨чӏалэ⟩ t͡ʃʼaːɮa ⟨чӏалэ⟩ ʔʲaːɮa ⟨ӏелэ⟩ ɕʼaːɮa ⟨щӏалэ⟩
to sleep t͡ʂəjan ⟨чъыен⟩ t͡ʂəjan ⟨чъыен⟩ d͡ʐajən ⟨джъеин⟩ ʂəjan ⟨шъыен⟩ ʒajən ⟨жеин⟩
tree t͡ʂəɣ ⟨чъыг⟩ t͡ʂəɣə ⟨чъыгы⟩ d͡ʐəɣ ⟨джъыг⟩ ʂəɣə ⟨шъыгы⟩ ʒəɣ ⟨жыг⟩
to run t͡ʂan ⟨чъэн⟩ t͡ʂan ⟨чъэн⟩ d͡ʐan ⟨джъэн⟩ tʂan ⟨шъэн⟩ ʒan ⟨жэн⟩
area t͡ʂʼəpʼa ⟨чӏыпӏэ⟩ t͡ʂʼəpʼa ⟨чӏыпӏэ⟩ t͡ʂʼəpʼa ⟨чӏыпӏэ⟩ ʃʼəpʼa ⟨шӏыпӏэ⟩ ɕʼəpʼa ⟨щӏыпӏэ⟩
iron ʁʷət͡ʂʼə ⟨гъучӏы⟩ ʁʷət͡ʂʼə ⟨гъучӏы⟩ ʁʷət͡ʂʼə ⟨гъучӏы⟩ ʃʼəpʼa ⟨гъушӏы⟩ ɕʼəpʼa ⟨гъущӏы⟩

Phase 2: Velar Palatalization

Later on, Phase 2 occurred. In this phase, the palatalized velar consonants гь [ɡʲ], кь [kʲ] and кӏь [kʲʼ] became palato-alveolar consonants дж [d͡ʒ], ч [t͡ʃ] and чӏ [t͡ʃʼ] respectively.

  • Affected Dialects: Abzakh, Bzhedug, Chemguy, and Modern Standard Kabardian.
  • Unaffected Dialects: Shapsug, Besleney, and archaic Kabardian dialects.

The shifts were:

In dialects affected by Phase 2, words like чӏапсэ "rope", чӏэрахъуэ "gun" & чӏэ "tail" are now pronounced with t͡ʃʼ.

Word Proto
Circassian 		Shapsug
(No Phase 2) 		Bzhedug
Chemguy
Abzakh
(Phase 2 affected) 		Besleney
(No Phase 2) 		Kabardian
(Phase 2 affected)
Shift: kʲ → t͡ʃ
to cough pskʲʰan ⟨пскʰьэн⟩ pskʲʰan ⟨пскʰьэн⟩ pst͡ʃan ⟨псчэн⟩ pskʲan ⟨пскьэн⟩ pst͡ʃan ⟨псчэн⟩
throat kʲəj ⟨кьый⟩ kʲəj ⟨кьый⟩ t͡ʃəj ⟨чый⟩ kʲəj ⟨кьий⟩ t͡ʃəj ⟨чий⟩
spleen kʲa ⟨кьэ⟩ kʲa ⟨кьэ⟩ t͡ʃa ⟨чэ⟩ kʲa ⟨кьэ⟩ t͡ʃa ⟨чэ⟩
glass aːpkʲ ⟨апкь⟩ aːpkʲ ⟨апкь⟩ aːpt͡ʃ ⟨апч⟩ ʔaːbɡʲ ⟨абгь⟩ ʔaːbd͡ʒ ⟨абдж⟩
chicken kʲat ⟨кьэт⟩ kʲat ⟨кьэт⟩ t͡ʃatə ⟨чэты⟩ ɡʲad ⟨гьэд⟩ d͡ʒad ⟨джэд⟩
Shift: ɡʲ → d͡ʒ
game ɡʲaɡʷ ⟨гьэгу⟩ ɡʲaɡʷ ⟨гьэгу⟩ d͡ʒaɡʷ ⟨джэгу⟩ ɡʲaɡʷ ⟨гьэгу⟩ d͡ʒaɡʷ ⟨джэгу⟩
shirt ɡʲaːna ⟨гьанэ⟩ ɡʲaːna ⟨гьанэ⟩ d͡ʒaːna ⟨джанэ⟩ ɡʲaːna ⟨гьанэ⟩ d͡ʒaːna ⟨джанэ⟩
to study jaɡʲan ⟨егьэн⟩ jaɡʲan ⟨егьэн⟩ jad͡ʒan ⟨еджэн⟩ jaɡʲan ⟨егьэн⟩ jad͡ʒan ⟨еджэн⟩
sick səmaːɡʲa ⟨сымагьэ⟩ səmaːɡʲa ⟨сымагьэ⟩ səmaːd͡ʒa ⟨сымаджэ⟩ səmaːɡʲa ⟨сымагьэ⟩ səmaːd͡ʒa ⟨сымаджэ⟩
evil bzaːɡʲa ⟨бзагьэ⟩ bzaːɡʲa ⟨бзагьэ⟩ bzaːd͡ʒa ⟨бзаджэ⟩ bzaːɡʲa ⟨бзагьэ⟩ bzaːd͡ʒa ⟨бзаджэ⟩
bitter dəɡʲ ⟨дыгь⟩ dəɡʲə ⟨дыгьы⟩ dəd͡ʒə ⟨дыджы⟩ dəɡʲ ⟨дыгь⟩ dəd͡ʒ ⟨дыдж⟩
Shift: kʲʼ → t͡ʃʼ
short kʲʼaːkʷa ⟨кӏьако⟩ kʲʼaːkʷa ⟨кӏьако⟩ t͡ʃʼaːkʷa ⟨чӏако⟩ kʲʼaːɡʷa ⟨кӏьагуэ⟩ t͡ʃʼaːɡʷa ⟨чӏагуэ⟩
rope kʲʼaːpsa ⟨кӏьапсэ⟩ kʲʼaːpsa ⟨кӏьапсэ⟩ t͡ʃʼaːpsa ⟨чӏапсэ⟩ kʲʼaːpsa ⟨кӏьапсэ⟩ t͡ʃʼaːpsa ⟨чӏапсэ⟩
egg kʲʼankʲʼa ⟨кӏьэнкӏьэ⟩ kʲʼaːkʲʼa ⟨кӏьакӏьэ⟩ t͡ʃʼant͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэнчӏэ⟩ ɡʲadəkʲʼa ⟨гьэдыкӏэ⟩ d͡ʒadət͡ʃʼa ⟨джэдыкӏэ⟩
gun kʲʼaraːχʷa ⟨кӏьэрахъуэ⟩ kʲʼaraːχʷa ⟨кӏьэрахъуэ⟩ t͡ʃʼaraːχʷa ⟨чӏэрахъо⟩ kʲʼaraːχʷa ⟨кӏьэрахъуэ⟩ t͡ʃʼaraːχʷa ⟨кӏэрахъуэ⟩
key ʔʷənkʲʼəbza ⟨ӏункӏьыбзэ⟩ ʔʷənkʲʼəbza ⟨ӏункӏьыбзэ⟩ ʔʷənt͡ʃʼəbza ⟨ӏунчӏыбзэ⟩ ʔʷənkʲʼəbza ⟨ӏункӏьыбзэ⟩ ʔʷənt͡ʃʼəbz ⟨ӏунчӏыбз⟩
ceiling kʲʼaːʃʷa ⟨кӏьашъо⟩ kʲʼaːʃʷa ⟨кӏьашъо⟩ t͡ʃʼaːʃʷa ⟨чӏашъо⟩ kʲʼaːfa ⟨кӏьафэ⟩ t͡ʃʼaːfa ⟨чӏафэ⟩
beard ʑaːkʲʼa ⟨жьа кӏьэ⟩ ʑaːkʲʼa ⟨жьа кӏьэ⟩ ʒaːt͡ʃʼa ⟨жачӏэ⟩ ʑaːkʲʼa ⟨жьакӏьэ⟩ ʑaːt͡ʃʼa ⟨жьачӏэ⟩
tail kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩
to kill wkʲʼən ⟨укӏьын⟩ wkʲʼən ⟨укӏьын⟩ wt͡ʃʼən ⟨учӏын⟩ wkʲʼən ⟨укӏьын⟩ wt͡ʃʼən ⟨учӏын⟩

Summary of Dialectal Evolution

The dialects can be categorized by which phases they underwent:

  • Shapsug & Besleney: Not affected by Phase 1 or Phase 2. They retain the most archaic features, keeping distinct palatalized velars and affricates.
  • Bzhedug & Chemguy: Not affected by Phase 1, but affected by Phase 2. They retain the original affricates but shifted the velars, resulting in a merger.
  • Some Kabardian dialects (e.g. Uzunyayla): Affected by Phase 1 but not Phase 2. They spirantized the affricates but kept the palatalized velars.
  • Abzakh & Modern Standard Kabardian: Affected by both Phase 1 and Phase 2. They spirantized the original affricates (Phase 1) and then shifted the velars to become the new affricates (Phase 2).

The following table illustrates the distinction between the original postalveolar affricate (affected by Phase 1) and the original palatalized velar (affected by Phase 2) across the dialects.

Word Proto
Circassian 		Shapsug
(No Phases) 		Besleney
(No Phases) 		Bzhedug
Chemguy
(Phase 2 Only) 		Some Kabardian
dialects
(Phase 1 Only) 		Abzakh
(Both Phases) 		Standard
Kabardian
(Both Phases)
tail kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩
new t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ t͡ʃʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ ʃʼa ⟨щӏэ⟩ ʃʼa ⟨щӏэ⟩ ʃʼa ⟨щӏэ⟩
winter t͡ʃʼəmaːxʷa ⟨чӏымахуэ⟩ t͡ʃʼəmaːfa ⟨чӏымафэ⟩ t͡ʃʼəmaːxʷa ⟨чӏымахуэ⟩ t͡ʃʼəmaːfa ⟨чӏымафэ⟩ ʃʼəmaːxʷa ⟨щӏымахуэ⟩ ʃʼəmaːfa ⟨щӏымафэ⟩ ʃʼəmaːxʷa ⟨щӏымахуэ⟩
mustache paːt͡ʃʼa ⟨пачӏэ⟩ paːt͡ʃʼa ⟨пачӏэ⟩ paːt͡ʃʼa ⟨пачӏэ⟩ paːt͡ʃʼa ⟨пачӏэ⟩ paːʃʼa ⟨пащӏэ⟩ paːʃʼa ⟨пащӏэ⟩ paːʃʼa ⟨пащӏэ⟩

Introduction of Labiodental Fricatives

Proto-Circassian lacked the labiodental fricatives: the voiceless labiodental fricative [f] and the voiced labiodental fricative [v]. These sounds developed independently in the Western (Adyghe) and Eastern (Kabardian) dialects from completely different phonological sources.

In summary:

  • Western Dialects derived [f] from the velar [xʷ].
  • Eastern Dialects derived [f] and [v] from labialized sibilants (t͡ɕʷ, ɕʷ, ʑʷ).

Western Shift (Velar to Labiodental)

In Western Circassian dialects (such as Abzakh, Bzhedug, Chemguy, and Shapsug), the Proto-Circassian labialized voiceless velar fricative [xʷ] ⟨ху⟩ shifted to the voiceless labiodental fricative [f] ⟨ф⟩.

In Eastern dialects (Kabardian and Besleney), this consonant remained a velar [xʷ].

  • xʷ ⟨ху⟩ → f ⟨ф⟩
Western Shift: xʷ → f
Word Proto
Circassian 		Western
(Shifted) 		Eastern
(Retained)
human t͡sʼəxʷ ⟨цӏыху⟩ t͡sʼəf ⟨цӏыф⟩ t͡sʼəxʷ ⟨цӏыху⟩
white xʷəʑ ⟨хужь⟩ fəʑə ⟨фыжьы⟩ xʷəʑ ⟨хужь⟩
hot xʷaːba ⟨хуабэ⟩ faːba ⟨фабэ⟩ xʷaːba ⟨хуабэ⟩
day maːxʷa ⟨махо⟩ maːfa ⟨мафэ⟩ maːxʷa ⟨махуэ⟩

Eastern Shift (Sibilant to Labiodental)

In Eastern Circassian dialects, a series of Proto-Circassian labialized postalveolar consonants (t͡ɕʷ, ʑʷ, ɕʷ, ɕʷʼ) shifted to become labiodental consonants.

In Western dialects, these consonants retained their original sibilant nature (pronounced as t͡ɕʷ, ʑʷ, ɕʷ, ɕʷʼ).

The specific shifts in Eastern dialects were:

Eastern Shift: Sibilants → Labiodentals
Word Proto
Circassian 		Western
(Retained) 		Eastern
(Shifted)
Shift: t͡ɕʷ → v
ox t͡ɕʷə ⟨цу⟩ t͡ɕʷə ⟨цу⟩ və ⟨вы⟩
shoe t͡ɕʷaːqa ⟨цуакъэ⟩ t͡ɕʷaːqa ⟨цуакъэ⟩ vaːqa ⟨вакъэ⟩
Shift: ʑʷ → v
star ʑʷaːʁʷa ⟨жъуагъо⟩ ʑʷaːʁʷa ⟨жъуагъо⟩ vaːʁʷa ⟨вагъуэ⟩
stone məʑʷa ⟨мыжъо⟩ məʑʷa ⟨мыжъо⟩ məva ⟨мывэ⟩
narrow zaʑʷə ⟨зэжъу⟩ zaʑʷə ⟨зэжъу⟩ zavə ⟨зэвы⟩
Shift: ɕʷ → f
you (pl.) ɕʷa ⟨шъо⟩ ɕʷa ⟨шъо⟩ fa ⟨фэ⟩
honey ɕʷaw ⟨шъоу⟩ ɕʷaw ⟨шъоу⟩ faw ⟨фо⟩
wife ɕʷəz ⟨шъуз⟩ ɕʷəz ⟨шъуз⟩ fəz ⟨фыз⟩
Shift: ɕʷʼ → fʼ
black ɕʷʼət͡sʼa ⟨шӏуцӏэ⟩ ɕʷʼət͡sʼa ⟨шӏуцӏэ⟩ fʼət͡sʼa ⟨фӏыцӏэ⟩
fire maːɕʷʼa ⟨машӏо⟩ maːɕʷʼa ⟨машӏо⟩ maːfʼa ⟨мафӏэ⟩
dirty ɕʷʼajə ⟨шӏои⟩ ɕʷʼajə ⟨шӏои⟩ fʼaj ⟨фӏей⟩

Divergence Example: "Light" vs. "Blind"

An interesting consequence of these opposing phonological shifts is the divergence of the words for "light" and "blind".

Proto-Circassian possessed two distinct words:

  • Light: naxʷ ⟨нэху⟩ (containing the velar xʷ)
  • Blind: naɕʷ ⟨нэшъу⟩ (containing the sibilant ɕʷ)

Due to the different sources of the labiodental [f] in the dialects, these words shifted in opposite directions:

  • In Western (Adyghe): The velar xʷ became f. Therefore, "light" became ⟨нэф⟩. The sibilant ɕʷ was retained, so "blind" remained ⟨нэшъу⟩.
  • In Eastern (Kabardian): The sibilant ɕʷ became f. Therefore, "blind" became ⟨нэф⟩. The velar xʷ was retained, so "light" remained ⟨нэху⟩.

As a result, the word ⟨нэф⟩ is a "false friend" between the dialects: it means light in Adyghe, but blind in Kabardian.

Evolution of "Light" and "Blind"
Meaning Proto-Circassian Western (Adyghe) Eastern (Kabardian)
Shift Result Shift Result
Light naxʷ ⟨нэху⟩ xʷ → f naf ⟨нэф⟩ (Retained) naxʷ ⟨нэху⟩
Blind naɕʷ ⟨нэшъу⟩ (Retained) naɕʷ ⟨нэшъу⟩ ɕʷ → f naf ⟨нэф⟩

Morphological Impact: Benefactive vs. Malefactive Prefixes

The phonological shifts also affected grammatical prefixes, creating distinct forms for the Benefactive and Malefactive prefixes in the modern dialects.

In Proto-Circassian, these prefixes were distinct:

  • Benefactive ("for"): xʷa ⟨хуэ⟩ — containing the velar xʷ.
  • Malefactive ("to the detriment of"): ɕʷʼa ⟨шӏуэ⟩ — containing the ejective sibilant ɕʷʼ.

Due to the shifts:

  • In Western (Adyghe): The Benefactive xʷa became fa ⟨фэ⟩, while the Malefactive ɕʷʼa was retained as ⟨шӏуэ⟩.
  • In Eastern (Kabardian): The Benefactive xʷa was retained as ⟨хуэ⟩, while the Malefactive ɕʷʼa shifted to fʼa ⟨фӏэ⟩.
Comparison of Prefixes
Function Proto
Circassian 		Western (Adyghe) Eastern (Kabardian)
Benefactive
(for someone's sake) 		xʷa- ⟨хуэ-⟩ fa- ⟨фэ-⟩ xʷa- ⟨хуэ-⟩
Malefactive
(to someone's detriment) 		ɕʷʼa- ⟨шӏуэ-⟩ ɕʷʼa- ⟨шӏуэ-⟩ fʼa- ⟨фӏэ-⟩

Examples of verbs utilizing these prefixes:

Meaning Proto
Circassian 		Western (Adyghe) Eastern (Kabardian)
to go for someone's sake xʷakʷʼan ⟨хуэкӏуэн⟩ fakʷʼan ⟨фэкӏон⟩ xʷakʷʼan ⟨хуэкӏуэн⟩
to lose
(lit. to go from someone) 		ɕʷʼakʷʼan ⟨шӏуэкӏуэн⟩ ɕʷʼakʷʼan ⟨шӏуэкӏон⟩ fʼakʷʼan ⟨фӏэкӏуэн⟩
to take for someone's sake xʷaħən ⟨хуэхьын⟩ faħən ⟨фэхьын⟩ xʷaħən ⟨хуэхьын⟩
to take away from
(forcefully) 		ɕʷʼaħən ⟨шӏуэхьын⟩ ɕʷʼaħən ⟨шӏуэхьын⟩ fʼaħən ⟨фӏэхьын⟩

Grammar

Numbers

English Proto-Circassian Ubykh Western Circassian Kabardian
IPA Cyrillic IPA Cyrillic IPA Cyrillic IPA Cyrillic
One zə зы za зэ zə зы zə зы
Two tʷʼə тӏу tʼqʷʼa ткъӏуа tʷʼə тӏу tʷʼə тӏу
Three ɕə щы ʂa шъа ɕə щы ɕə щы
Four pɬʼə плӏы pʼɬʼə плӏы pɬʼə плӏы pɬʼə плӏы
Five txʷə тху ɕxə щхы tfə тфы txʷə тху
Six xə хы fə фы xə хы xə хы
Seven bɮə блы blə бльы bɮə блы bɮə блы
Eight jə и ʁʷa гъуа jə и jə и
Nine bʁʷə бгъу bʁʲə бгъьу bʁʷə бгъу bʁʷə бгъу
Ten pʃʼə пшӏы ʑʷə жъуы pʃʼə пшӏы pɕʼə пщӏы

Schleicher's fable

Schleicher's fable in Proto-Circassian:

χʷǝ č́ʷara-gjǝ

χʷǝ ja laśʷam mә q́ˤ:an

č́ʷara pǝʎ́an;

mǝ χwanǝta k:ʷǝm q:irǝ,

mǝ čʷǝχʷa čʷam,

mǝ ć̣ǝm pasa mǝš́ʷrǝ.

χʷǝ č́ʷara q̇́ˤan:

"źǝʁʷǝ sā ǵʷǝ,

q:ać̣am ć̣arǝ č́ʷara ḳ́ʷarǝ."

č́ʷara q̇́ˤan: "q:́ˤʷa χʷǝ!

źǝʁʷǝ š́a ǵʷǝ ć̣arǝ,

q:ać̣a, ł́a, č́ʷara laśʷam

ʎ́ʷa ḳ́ač̣ʷǝm čǝ-wǝ,

χʷiara-gjǝ laśʷam mә q́ˤ:a."

nǝ q:́aˤʷasa χʷǝ rǝq:ʷada q:ˤʷan.

See also

Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at Appendix:Proto-Northwest Caucasian reconstructions

References

  • Урыс Хь. Ш. (2000). Адыгэбзэм и тхыдэ: ІыхьитIу зэхэлъу. Налшык: Эльбрус. ISBN 5-7680-1439-X
  • STAROSTIN, Sergei A.; NIKOLAYEV, Sergei L. (1994). A North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary: Preface.
  • Viacheslav A. Chirikba; Common West Caucasian: The Reconstruction of its Phonological System and Parts of its Lexicon and Morphology. Leiden, The Netherlands : Research School CNWS, 1996; xxvi, 452 p. : ill. ; 24 cm. ISBN 9073782732
  • Kuipers - A Dictionary of Proto-Circassian Roots (1975)
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