Chapati

Chapati (alternatively spelled chapathi; pronounced as IAST: capātī, capāṭī, cāpāṭi), also known as roti, ruti, rotti, rooti, rotee, rotli, rotta, safati, shabaati, phulka, chapo (in East Africa), sada roti (in the Caribbean), poli (in Marathi), and roṣi (in the Maldives), is an unleavened flatbread originating from the Indian subcontinent and is a staple in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Kyrgyzstan, the Arabian Peninsula, East Africa, and the Caribbean. Chapatis are made of whole-wheat flour known as atta, mixed into dough with water, oil (optional), and salt (optional) in a mixing utensil called a parat, and are cooked on a tava (flat skillet).^[1]

They were introduced to East Africa by trade and immigration, including by Indian railway workers.

The word chapati is derived from the Sanskrit word चर्पटी (charpaṭī), a derivative of Sanskrit *चर्प (charpa, "flat"). This describes the way dough is shaped by slapping it between the hands.^[2][a] It is also spelled chapatti or chapathi.^[4] In British India, the spellings chewpatty and chowpatty were used.^[3] The word chapati has also been loaned into Swahili^[5] and Mauritian Creole.^[6]

Chapati is associated with roti,^[b] and the term roti is used for chapati,^[8] including in Bengal.^[9] In the Maldives, chapati is known as roṣi (or roshi), except in the dialects of Fuvahmulah and Seenu Atoll, where it is known as foḷi.^[10]

Chapatis are made using a soft dough prepared with atta, a common type of whole wheat flour that is stone-ground using a chakki.^[11] This is mixed with water, typically 60 to 80 percent, to form a smooth dough.^[12] Optionally, it may have small amounts of salt—about 0.5 to 2 percent^[13]—and oil.^[14]

The atta used in chapati is typically milled to high extraction—about 70–100% extraction, commonly 90% in rural kitchens and 80% in industrial settings.^[15] It is often sifted to remove the coarsest grains. The byproduct of this, known as resultant atta, may also be used for chapati.^[16] In villages, including many in Rajasthan, the flour is commonly milled on a quern-stone.^[17] Chapati typically uses common wheat, which results in its soft, pliable texture.^[18] Durum wheat is added in some parts of India.^[19] Wheat varieties' ability to produce good chapati is a large consideration when farming wheat^[20] or developing new varieties.^[21] Although wheat is typically sold without distinguishing varieties, Indian consumers prefer wheat that produces better chapati,^[22] and varieties such as Sharbati wheat are priced higher due to such qualities.^[23]

The dough is kneaded by hand for 10 to 15 minutes, reaching a firm consistency and developing gluten. The dough may be kneaded mechanically, using a planetary mixer or a horizontal bread mixer.^[24] It is left to rest for 30 to 120 minutes, though mechanically mixed dough requires only 15 to 20 minutes.^[24] After resting, the dough becomes softer and more relaxed. Portions of the dough, weighing 35 to 40 grams (1.2 to 1.4 oz), are formed into balls that are rolled into a circle^[24] about 10 to 15 centimetres (3.9 to 5.9 in) across and 2 to 3 mm thick.^[25] This is typically done by dusting the dough with flour and rolling it out using a rollingn pin.^[24] Oil may be used during rolling.^[13]

Mechanical shaping processes are faster and more consistent than using a rolling pin. Chapati presses have two iron plates on a hinge, between which dough is placed; a lever connected to the lower plate is folded over the upper plate to apply pressure. These are used in both professional and home kitchens and can produce over 100 chapatis per hour. Another pressing device places the dough on a pedal-operated plate that pushes it onto a top plate; this can produce over 200 chapatis per hour.^[26] Dough sheeting machines using rollers are common in high-volume kitchens.^[27] Equipment used to make tortillas has been used for chapati in some regions.^[28]

The rolled-out dough is thrown on a dry tava, a type of iron griddle, and cooked on both sides.^[29] It cooks at 200 to 220 °C (392 to 428 °F) for 1 to 2 minutes^[24]—about 45 seconds on one side and 90 seconds on the other,^[30] being flipped once bubbles start to form.^[31] This rapid cooking on a hot surface is similar to the method used for Arab breads.^[32]

Chapati puffs up as moisture in the dough changes into steam.^[33] Sometimes, chapatis are only partially cooked on the skillet, and then cooked directly over a flame or hot coals for a few seconds to puff up.^[34] This is called a phulka,^[29] though a phulka may specifically be a thin chapati.^[35] It is also possible to puff up the roti directly on the tava, applying pressure with a dry cloth,^[24] or in an oven at about 350 °C (662 °F).^[30]

The inflation causes chapati to be soft and pliable.^[36] In the absence of leavening, the formation of steam is responsible for the separation of crust and crumb.^[37] The crust comprises almost the entire chapati,^[38] while the crumb contains starch that is highly deformed and gelatinisation.^[39] Conduction is the main mode of heat transfer, forming a hard surface^[40] through starch gelatinisation.^[31]

Some machines both shape and bake chapati dough. The roti maker is similar to a chapati press but with a heating element that cooks the dough, which lifts up the upper plate as it inflates.^[41] Some machines perform continuous sheeting and baking;^[42] these may produce hundreds of chapatis per hour.^[43]

Chapatis are served while hot and fresh. They are often topped with butter or ghee.^[24] According to a 2020 survey in Delhi, the median portion size of chapati is 70 grams, averaging 2 chapatis for women and 3 chapatis for men.^[44] According to a 2013 study in the United Kingdom, the mean portion size is 90 grams for adults, 64 grams for school-aged children, and 44 grams for preschool children.^[45]

Chapati is classified as a single-layer, unleavened, unfermented flatbread.^[46] Chapati may be considered a form of roti, and it is one of several types that is dry roasted.^[29] Related flatbreads from South Asia also use atta but are differ based on their cooking technique; these include paratha, which has laminated dough; puri, which is deep fried; tandoori roti (also known as tandoori chapati), which is baked in a tandoor; roomali roti, which is cooked on the bottom side of a pan;^[47] and thepla, which contains vegetables and spices.^[48]

Additional flours may be added to chapati in places where wheat is less available.^[49] A common version, known as mesi roti, uses Bengal gram chickpeas for 20 to 30 percent of the flour.^[50] Cornmeal chapatis are common in parts of North India in the winter,^[51] and a version in Punjabi cuisine uses corn and mustard greens.^[52] Amaranth chapati is eaten in the Himalayas;^[53] amaranth lacks the gluten necessary for chapati but can be combined with wheat.^[54] In parts of Pakistan that grow rice, rice flour, which also lacks gluten, is combined with other flours to prepare chapati.^[55] Rice flour is also used for gluten-free chapati, with hydrocolloids added for texture.^[56] Millets may be blended with other flours to produce chapatis in India; these include finger millet, pearl millet,^[57] kodo millet,^[58], and sorghum; the latter is used for a crunchy, dry chapati.^[51] Sweet potato may be added to wheat chapati in Kenya.^[49]

India has many versions of chapati. Thicker chapatis are made in rural areas than urban areas.^[59] In Gujarati cuisine, a rotlee is a chapati that is very thin.^[29] In the cuisine of Kerala, rice flour is used to make a thin chapati called podi-patthiri, which is served with coconut milk.^[60] The Tangkhul people of Manipur consume a chapati of rice flour, sugar syrup, and ground sesame.^[61] Among the Gaddi people of Himachal Pradesh have, a type of chapati called rot is large enough that one is an entire serving.^[62] In Rajasthan, pods of the sangri tree are added to wheat chapati.^[63]

The chapati in East African cuisine is fried rather than cooked over a flame,^[64] resulting in a soft interior and crispy, browned exterior.^[65] East African chapati is more similar to Indian paratha than chapati,^[66] though it is thinner than paratha and uses less oil.^[67] In Kenya, it is cooked on a charcoal stove,^[68] using oil, butter, or lard. A type of skillet known as jua kali is designed for chapati, enabling flipping by hand.^[67] In Zanzibari cuisine, chapati may be made of wheat or millet, though the latter is more difficult to prepare due to the lack of gluten. It is thicker than wheat chapati, shaped by slapping with the hands rather than rolling.^[69]

Chapati may be served for any meal.^[70] Like other Indian flatbreads, it is served as the central component of a typical meal;^[71] the bread is eaten by using the hands to tear the bread and pick up the accompanying food.^[72] Chapatis are paired with curries, vegetable dishes, stews, or chutneys.^[2] In Indian and Sri Lankan cuisine, it is commonly eaten with dal, an example of grains paired with legumes.^[73] In East African cuisine, chapati is eaten with mashes or stews.^[74]

Chapati, like other flatbreads, may be used for wraps.^[75] In the cuisine of Afghanistan and Pakistan, it is served with kebabs.^[76] In the cuisine of Uganda, an omelette wrapped in a chapati is known as rolex,^[64] while a chapati with cooked beans is known as kikomando.^[77]

The nutritional content of chapati comes from wheat.^[80] It is a major source of energy and carbohydrates.^[59] It consists of about 11–13% protein and 57% starch,^[81] with a high amount of dietary fibre.^[4] A typical chapati eaten in Kenyan Luo cuisine—prepared with margarine—is high in fat, consisting of about 11.5% fat, 6.9% protein, and 28.1% water.^[82] Chapati has a lower glycemic index than leavened breads,^[83] at around 60.^[84]

The cooking process results in the loss of vitamins, including vitamin B and lysine.^[80] The cooking conditions and thickness of chapati affects the loss of vitamins, particularly thiamin.^[59] Minerals are also lost due to phytic acid reactions.^[80] Resting the dough allows phytic acid to break down, thus increasing mineral value.^[85] Chapati is high in zinc due to being whole-wheat.^[80] Chapati made of resultant atta is higher in niacin, thiamin, and riboflavin.^[86] Chapati may be fortified with vegetables to increase nutrients.^[87]

Qualities desired by consumers of chapati include a softness, chewiness, pliability, a wheaty flavour and scent, mild sweetness, cream colour, and a high height when puffed.^[88] The desired appearance has uniform spots and no cracks.^[36] The size, shape, and preparation method may vary to a large extent.^[11]

As wheat flour is the main ingredient, the wheat and the way that it is processed have a strong impact on the qualities of chapati.^[89] The optimal flour is medium hard,^[90] fine enough for 80% of its grains to pass through a 60-mesh sieve.^[86] It contains a medium amount of protein^[59]—about 10–13% protein—as well as 7–9% moisture and 10–16% damaged starch.^[15] Protein is a major factor on qualities;^[91] a higher amount results in toughness, while a lower amount results in brittleness.^[18] Some types of protein, including glutenin and gliadin, have significant effects; high gliadin content results in toughness.^[92] A study by Haridas Rao et al. found that protein in the flour is correlated with water absorption.^[11] Damaged starch is also correlated with water absorption, thus increasing softness.^[93] Flour with higher sugar and diastatic enzymes results in sweeter chapati.^[18] The species of wheat affects properties; durum and emmer wheat result in dryer and tougher chapatis than common wheat.^[94] although blends containing small amounts of durum may result in acceptable, sweeter chapatis.^[95] Varieties of common wheat differ in their chapati-making qualities.^[90] Indian varieties may contain the optimal protein contents for chapati.^[31]

The milling method also affects chapati due to the way starch is broken down.^[96] Chakki-milled flour produces sweeter chapati.^[97] The use of resultant atta results in less damaged starch.^[86] The level of flour extraction determines the colour,^[91] and higher-extraction flour increases softness.^[98] White flour does not produce the ideal texture due to the lack of bran.^[59]

The preparation process also has a strong impact on flavour and texture.^[40] Hydration and gluten formation during mixing contribute to texture. A high cooking temperature increases the height of puffing.^[99] The colour, flavour, and scent of chapati are a result of the Maillard reaction during cooking.^[100] Like other wheat-based foods, it contains acrylamides, a potentially hazardous compound produced through the Maillard reaction.^[101]

Some types of wheat flour require more water and result in softer and sweeter chapati.^[98] Adding salt to the dough can improve the texture of the dough to roll out and the final chapati.^[13] Adding oil can improve softness and pliability during storage, though it hinders puffing. Additives such as emulsifiers may improve the texture.^[102]

Different types of flours may be added to improve nutrition, shelf life, or physical qualities;^[103] their use has varying effects.^[104] Composite flours using barley or germinated wheat have been shown to result in acceptable chapatis, while flours such as soya flour may result in acceptable chapatis with increased nutritional value.^[95] Adding pulse flours increases protein content,^[105] while potato flour may increase softness and shelf life.^[106]

Chapati experiences quick staling, like other flatbreads,^[13] due to its thinness^[107] and high moisture.^[108] It has a shelf life of 24 to 36 hours.^[42] It stales due to starch retrogradation, a process in which the structure of starch molecules changes;^[109] gluten absorbs moisture from the starch.^[110] It quickly loses its texture,^[42] becoming hard and fragile.^[111] It also loses its flavour^[108] and experiences enzymatic browning.^[112] Mold may form within 3 to 4 days.^[108]

Chapati with higher shelf life may be produced with chemical preservatives, such as the stabiliser guar gum^[110] or the antifungal agent sorbic acid,^[108] as well as enzymes or emulsifiers.^[48] However, some preservatives result in bitterness. Thermal processing may also increase the shelf life without preservatives,^[42] and vacuum packing may produce chapatis that last one year.^[108] Chapati that is partly baked may be better for storing or freezing.^[113] Freezing and thawing chapati weakens proteins, so additives are used in frozen chapati.^[40]

Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization contain clay and metal artefacts resembling tavas, indicating the possible existence of chapati.^[114] Historian K. T. Achaya notes the existence of cave paintings depicting the preparation of round dough, identified as puri or chapati.^[115] Chapati was not common during the Vedic period. Thus, it was never included in the Hindu classification system of kaccha and pukka food; as a food that is not boiled, it would have been classified as a pukka food to be eaten outside of the household, but it instead became an everyday food.^[116]

The word chapati was used in Sanskrit texts^[2] and later in the Mughal Empire;^[117] it is noted in the 16th-century document Ain-i-Akbari by Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, vizier of Mughal emperor Akbar.^[118] The 17th-century priest Sebastien Manrique, travelling to Lahore, described chapati as a thin, baked bread that was eaten by the lower class.^[119] Anglo-Indians in British India ate chapati as they assimilated into Indian culture.^[120]

During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Chapati Movement was an event that British officials associated with rebellion. Village watchmen carried chapatis in hand from village to village, giving instructions to make more and send on to the next village, a pattern that spread very fast. The motive was unknown.^[121] According to food writer Nina Mukerjee Furstenau, the role of chapati in this event signifies the symbolism of bread as a simple, common food,^[122] while writer Anita Mannur views it as an example of culinary practices being difficult to comprehend.^[123]

Indian indentured labourers introduced chapati to the Caribbean, leading to regional forms of roti.^[124] In the 1880s, indentured shipworkers from the North-Western Provinces of British India demanded chapati, while others demanded rice, leading to the creation of two separate rations.^[125] Chapatis were popularised in Kerala—a part of India where wheat was not a staple—following the Vaikom Satyagraha protest of 1924, during which Sikh activists from Punjab who ran a langar kitchen that served them for free.^[126][127] They were introduced to East Africa by immigrants from the subcontinent.^[64] In Kenya, it was likely introduced amid widespread migration from India in the late 19th and early 20th century.^[128] Indian labourers on British Empire–run railways introduced their cuisine, including chapati, to both Kenya and Uganda.^[129] Chapati was also an important food at prisons in the British protectorate of Zanzibar, with a 1930 letter listing prisoners' complaints about how it was prepared.^[69]

During the Green Revolution, Mexican wheat varieties developed by Norman Borlaug were poorly received in India due to their red colour, leading him to introduce amber-coloured varieties developed in Pakistan. An associate of Borlaug, M. S. Swaminathan, later developed varieties ideal for chapati.^[130] Beginning in the 1990s, Indians have increasingly consumed wheat as Western-style bread instead of chapati.^[131] In 21st-century Kenya, chapati has become a more common snack than french fries and a more common breakfast than bread, having previously been reserved for special occasions, according to Oyunga Pala of The Elephant.^[132] Its popularity in the country has increased while the historical staple ugali has declined, as evidenced by Agriculture and Food Authority data showing an increase in wheat consumption in 2024.^[133]

Chapatis are a staple food in the Indian subcontinent.^[134] It is the most consumed flatbread in the region,^[135] and, according to Elsevier's Encyclopedia of Food Grains, in the world.^[136] It is frequently consumed in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Tibet,^[c] and Afghanistan,^[138] including in places where rice is the predominant staple.^[70] Nearly 90% of wheat produced in Pakistan,^[139] 80–85% produced in India,^[11] and most produced in Bangladesh goes toward chapati.^[140]

Chapati is commonly homemade in India^[9] and among all cultures in Kenya.^[128] In South Asian villages, chapati is more commonly homemade than purchased.^[141] Making chapati is associated with women's domestic gender roles in India.^[142] Chapati is typically eaten while fresh,^[143] though leftover stale chapatis are consumed by many for breakfast.^[144] Stale chapatis may also used as cattle feed in India.^[107] Large-scale settings of chapati production include canteens, hospitals, and schools.^[145] Ready-to-eat chapati is produced as a convenience food, manufactured mechanically and distributed in individual packs,^[143] while many grocery stores specialising in Indian food also sell fresh chapati.^[146]

Chapati is an inexpensive energy source in India.^[147] Many Indians eat it twice a day.^[148] A 2018 survey of rural parts of four Indian states found that three-quarters of households make chapati.^[149] Chapati is fed to babies in parts of India such as Rajasthan;^[150] dry chapatis may be mashed to be baby food.^[151] The Catholic Church in India uses chapati as sacramental bread for the Communion ritual, established as a localisation by the All India Liturgical Meeting of 1969.^[152]

Chapati is a staple in North Indian, Western Indian, and Central Indian cuisine, eaten with dal.^[153] Regions where chapati is a staple include the Western Himalayas;^[154] for example, the people of the Hunza Valley consider it a requirement for a meal.^[155] The Cuisine of Uttarakhand, in the Central Himalayas, typically features rice for lunch and chapati for dinner. It is usually made of wheat in summer and finger millet in winter,^[156] with finger millet chapati seen as a remedy for digestion and to provide warmth.^[157] In the Sikkim–Darjeeling region of the Eastern Himalayas, where rice is the main staple, chapati is common in urban areas.^[158] In the South Indian region of Coastal Andhra, chapati is eaten as breakfast, but is less common than South Indian idli or dosa.^[159] Chapati is common in the South Indian city of Hyderabad, but less so in surrounding rural areas, due to Mughal influence on the city.^[160]

Chapati is eaten in most East African countries.^[64] It is one of the most common main courses in Kenyan urban areas,^[161] and Kenyan street vendors serve chapati wraps.^[67] Various accompaniments are served with chapati in the street food of Nairobi.^[162] In western Kenya, it is seen as a snack with tea,^[163] and it may be eaten for gatherings and special occasions.^[164] The Luo people of Kenya eat chapati as breakfast with tea and, less commonly, as dinner.^[165] Among the Embu community—where chapati was introduced by Indian shopkeepers—chapati is only eaten on special occasions.^[166] Chapati is also eaten for Christmas in Kenya.^[167][168] In Uganda, many street stalls sell chapati and its derived dishes, rolex and kikomando; the two are often sold by the same vendors.^[169] Chapati is a common breakfast in Kampala.^[170] Chapati is also eaten in all parts of Tanzania.^[171] In Dar es Salaam, it is a snack or side dish,^[172] and, in Zanzibar, it is a popular breakfast among young, working-class people.^[173]

Chapati is consumed by the South Asian diaspora, including in the United Kingdom and in the Middle East,^[118] as well as the Kenyan diaspora.^[132] As a staple food, chapati tends to have lasting consumption among migrant communities^[174] and is often seen as part of a cultural identity.^[175] It is a major part of the diet of Pakistanis in Europe.^[176] Pakistanis in Norway frequently eat homemade chapati, though some decrease their consumption in favor of Western-style bread or due to health concerns amid changing lifestyles.^[177] Chapati is sometimes made with white flour among immigrants in Europe, including Pakistanis in Norway.^[178] A survey in Birmingham, United Kingdom, found that Hindu and Sikh migrants eat chapati for breakfast more often than local dishes.^[179] In the cuisine of Oman, chapati is a typical breakfast dish. It became common in the country amid increased immigration between the 1990s and 2010s.^[180] It also exists in the cuisines of Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates,^[181] being sold by bakeries in Abu Dhabi.^[182] Indo-Malaysians eat chapati for breakfast.^[183] According to food writer Vir Sanghvi, Indian restaurants in the Western world do not serve chapati as much as naan as customers are not used to the method of eating with the hands.^[184]

• Indian bread
• Tortilla – a similar flatbread^[59]